ECOLOGICAL RISKS OF RAW MATERIAL EXTRACTION AND ЕNRICHMENT FOR EV BATTERIES AND THE IMPORTANCE OF EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32782/3041-2080/2026-7-1Keywords:
electric vehicles, batteries, critical minerals, environmental risks, extended producer responsibility, circular economy, battery passport, LCAAbstract
The article analyzes the environmental risks of mining, enrichment and processing of mineral raw materials for the production of electric vehicle batteries and determines the importance of extended producer responsibility (EPR) to reduce this impact. The key materials of the battery industry are characterized – lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese and graphite – and their role in modern types of batteries (NMC, NCA, LFP) is shown. Data on the geography of mining of critical minerals and the growth of global demand for them in connection with the development of electromobility are summarized. Special attention is paid to the impact on water resources, soils, ecosystems and atmospheric air, in particular the risks of depletion of aquifers, acid mine drainage, formation of enrichment tailings, dust and gas emissions. Based on the LCA approach, it is shown that the production of electric vehicles, especially batteries, forms a higher initial ecological footprint compared to cars with internal combustion engines, however, during operation, electric vehicles provide lower total greenhouse gas emissions. It is substantiated that RBB, eco-design, supply chain due diligence, recycling, second-life approaches and the implementation of battery passport are systemic tools for the transition to a circular economy. The methodological basis is the analysis of scientific sources, a comparative description of technological stages and the systematization of environmental risks. Recommendations are formulated for the standardization of sustainable production, the development of "green" processing technologies and strengthening international regulation in the field of EV batteries
References
International Energy Agency. Global EV Outlook. 2024. URL: https://www.iea.org/energy-system
Zubi G., Dufo-López R., Carvalho M., Pasaoglu G. The lithium-ion battery: State of the art and future perspectives. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2018. Vol. 89. P. 292–308. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.002
U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries: Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel. 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2023
Flexer V., Baspineiro C. F., Galli C. I. Lithium recovery from brines: A vital raw material for green energies with a potential environmental impact. Science of the Total Environment. 2018. Vol. 639. P. 1188–1204. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.223
Sonter L. J., Dade M. C., Watson J. E. M., Valenta R. K. Renewable energy production will exacerbatemining threats to biodiversity. Nature Communications. 2020. Vol. 11. P. 4174. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5
Ellingsen L. A.-W., Singh B., Strømman A. H. The size and range effect: Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles. Environmental Research Letters. 2016. Vol. 11, № 5. P. 054010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/5/054010
Wang X., Gaustad G., Babbitt C. W. Targeting high value metals in lithium-ion battery recycling via cathode-directed strategies. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2014. Vol. 64. P. 345–356. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.056
Dunn J. B., Gaines L., Sullivan J., Wang M. Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries. Environmental Science & Technology.2012. Vol. 46, № 22. P. 12704–12712. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es302420z
International Energy Agency. Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025; Global EV Outlook. 2025. URL:https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025
Geographical distribution of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite production in 2021. URL: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Geographical-distribution-of-lithium-cobalt-nickel-and-graphite-production-in-2021_fig1_373895747
Argonne National Laboratory. GREET Model. URL: https://www.energy.gov/cmei/greet
ICCT. Life Cycle Assessment of Electric Vehicles. URL: https://theicct.org/publication/electric-cars-lifecycle-analysis-emissions-europe-jul25/
Argonne National Laboratory. GREET model. URL: https://www.energy.gov/cmei/greet
ICCT. Why electric vehicles are already much greener than combustion engine vehicles. URL: https://theicct.org/why-evs-are-already-much-greener-than-combustion-engine-vehicles-jul25/
